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Research Summary

The project sought to trace the practice of Religious Education from official policy pronouncements, through professional interpretation, into classroom practice. Spanning secondary schools in Scotland, Northern Ireland and England, faith schools and non-faith schools, the researchers drew on perspectives from theology, philosophy and anthropology to understand the purpose and practice of RE for students and teachers. The researchers carried out focus groups with policymakers and experts, ethnographic observation in classrooms in 24 schools across the UK, textbook and policy document analysis, and a survey of Year 11/S4 pupils in order to understand the definitions teachers and students gave of good RE, and the reasons for studying it.

The project uncovered confusion as to the aims of RE, with the subject often being over-burdened with expectations beyond the substantive study of religions. These included contribution to faith nurture, collective worship, multi-cultural understanding, anti-racist education, discussion of contemporary ethical issues, critical thinking skills, social, civic, sex and relationships education. In addition, RE was often expected to deliver good results in high status tests (GCSE and Standard Grade) in significantly less classroom time than was given to similar subjects such as History. Teachers were often keen to present RE as a rigorous subject in the academic humanities, alongside History and Geography, while a majority of pupils saw the subject as more akin to Citizenship and PSHE.

Researchers

Professor James Conroy, Dr David Lundie, Professor Robert Davis, Dr Philip Barnes, Professor Tony Gallagher, Professor Vivienne Baumfield, Dr Nicole Bourque & Dr Kevin Lowden

Research Institution

University of Glasgow

What is this about?

The project was structured around three fundamental questions:

1. what are the stated policy intentions for RE in schools?
2. how are these intentions enacted through the pedagogical practices of teachers in classrooms?
3. what is the impact of RE on students and how is this evaluated?

What was done?

An ‘hourglass’ model was used to understand RE from policy into practice. At the top of the hourglass, at its widest point, are the ‘blizzard’ of policies, aims, interests and pedagogical models proposed by various stakeholders in the RE field – government, faith groups, academic and practitioner bodies. The hourglass narrows toward classroom enactment, and widens again when considering the diverse impacts of RE practice among pupils, faith communities and wider society.

Textual analysis was used to trace the influence of national policies on the textbooks, exam syllabuses, Agreed Syllabuses and other resources used in the classroom.

Ethnographic observations were carried out in 24 schools across Scotland, England (including several in Greater London) and Northern Ireland. Ethnographers spent a minimum of 10 days in each school, with a focus on students in the 14-16 age group (Year 10/11 in England, S3/4 in Scotland). In addition to observing lessons, researchers carried out student focus groups, teacher focus groups, analysis of student workbooks and visual displays, and the shadowing of a student through their school day, to understand RE’s similarities and distinctiveness relative to the wider curriculum.

Analysis of ethnographic fieldnotes focused on 9 key themes:

1. The role of examinations in setting the aims and content of RE
2. The fit between teacher, pupil and school values in the RE classroom
3. The level of resource and support given to RE
4. The language and treatment of immanence and transcendence, touching on pupils’ levels of religious experience and religious literacy
5. The level of intellectual challenge offered by RE
6. The frequency and practices of engagement with texts, including pedagogical and sacred texts, in the RE classroom
7. The impact of teachers’ pedagogical style on the experience and perceived aims of RE
8. The role and approach to multi-cultural awareness in the RE classroom
9. The implicit and explicit truth claims made about religions in the RE classroom.

A practitioner enquiry strand encouraged teachers in participating schools to carry out their own small-scale action research projects linked to the aims of the overall project.

A survey of students in participating schools was carried out in 2011, and students from some participating schools were invited to a forum theatre performance in which we elicited feedback on our interpretation of the findings by playing out fictionalised vignettes from the research data.

Main findings and outputs

Despite the confusion that exists about the meaning and purpose of the subject, the researchers concluded that it is meaningful to talk about RE as a single subject across faith and non-faith schools.

The examination syllabus has enormous power to drive, and also to distort, the meaning and purpose of the subject.

Religious education often stands in a counter-cultural position within schools, requiring a pedagogical openness which is uncommon in other academic subjects at qualification level.

Relevance to RE

The research points to a need for a shared sense of meaning in the RE classroom, an understanding not just of particular doctrines, practices or concepts in a religion, but of what it would be for the believer to find meaning in such concepts.

Teachers who demonstrated a ‘committed openness’, steering a course between dogmatic commitment and undifferentiated relativism, were best able to introduce students to these concepts in a way that did not distort students’ own beliefs and world views.

Headteacher support was acknowledged as vital to the provision of good RE, including adequate resourcing, specialist teachers and curriculum time.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The research project deliberately sought out schools which were confident of their RE provision, so cannot make any claim to be representative of RE across the UK. Nonetheless, even in schools which identified themselves as examples of good practice, there were significant challenges faced by RE.

Some elements of the research fieldwork, carried out in 2008-2010, may be dated, coming before widespread academisation, the 2013 REC Curriculum Framework and the revised GCSE and A-Level standards.

Find out more

Conroy, J C, Lundie, D et al. (2013) Does Religious Education Work? A multi-dimensional investigation. London: Bloomsbury Academic.

http://www.secularism.org.uk/uploads/does-religious-education-work-by-prof-c-conroy.pdf

Research Summary

This is an explanation of critical religious education. Three key ideas are presented. The search for knowledge requires a rigorous academic study of religion; the search for wisdom demands the personal engagement of the learner in this study; and the search for truth draws knowledge and wisdom together. For the writer, the argument is encapsulated in Iris Murdoch’s observation that ‘to do philosophy is to explore one’s own temperament, and yet at the same time to attempt to discover the truth’. Regarding knowledge, RE must have a rigorous and systematic academic grounding. This has value for pupils, in the broader context of their striving for personal formation or the cultivation of wisdom. The key driver of critical RE is the search for ultimate truth. When the search for truth pulls together the study of religion and the personal formation of learners, critical RE is able to overcome the polarity between ‘learning about’ and ‘learning from’ religion. These ideas set excellent challenges to RE teachers: how rigorous is the study of religion in our classrooms? To what extent are learners engaged personally? Are they genuinely enabled to search for truth?

Researcher

Andrew Wright

Research Institution

University College London Institute of Education and London School of Theology

What is this about?

• From the 1970s on, phenomenological approaches to RE tended to be limited to narrow descriptions of religions, not addressing pupils’ concerns.
• Critical RE is one attempt to overcome this problem, enabling pupils to enter into a rationale critique of religion. Religion should be scrutinised, to build pupils’ religious literacy. It does not involve being cynical about religion: more, debating the truth issues raised by religion, building reasoned thought.
• It is not a technique that can be trained, but a disposition for teachers and pupils, based on asking intelligent questions. It can be developed: it is needed in university theology or philosophy, the only difference at school being the need for it to be practised at levels appropriate to age or ability.
• Critical RE makes the subject more intellectually rigorous, which may help to motivate pupils more fully (see Main findings and outputs, below).

What was done?

This is a scholarly essay, examining the background to and the nature of an approach to RE – critical RE – and offering arguments for the suitability and strength of this approach.

Main findings and outputs

• Knowledge. RE must have a rigorous academic grounding. Critical thinking requires both distance from religion (in order to think and reflect), and engagement with religion (to experience its potential value). Rather than being taught religious ‘facts’, children should learn to think critically in the manner of philosophers or theologians.
• There are potential dangers in this approach, that RE should become detached from religious adherents’ life-worlds, or too dry for pupils. However, an emphasis on wisdom helps overcome these dangers.
• Wisdom. The modern divide between rational theology and experiential religion may be reflected in RE’s model of ‘learning about religion’ and ‘learning from religion’. Yet critical realist philosophy may help to bridge the divide: the search for knowledge of the world can be seen as a personal pursuit, helping to make us wiser, more responsible people. In RE this involves rigorously weighing religious truth claims and scrutining one’s own opinions in the light of the search for truth.
• Truth. The core focus of critical RE is to be found in the question of ultimate truth. Is there an ultimate religious truth? Is there an ultimate order of things, which exists independently of our ability to perceive it? The question is unresolved. The aim of critical RE is to equip pupils with the skills to engage intelligently with the question for themselves. The choices between atheism, theism and agnosticism are unavoidable; the more critically and reflectively they are made, the better. The questions are simultaneously academic and personal.

Relevance to RE

There are strong messages for RE teachers in this article, that have the potential for positive impact on pedagogy. Rigour in RE, for example, does not mean the learning of more and more ‘facts’ about religion: the author offers a model according to which rigorous teaching enables pupils to gain progressively in theological and philosophical reasoning ability. This means that they will benefit personally from the process of critical RE. Teachers should focus lessons on ultimate questions arising out of religion, be prepared to discuss and debate these with pupils and encourage pupils to discuss and debate with one another. The process should be driven by concern for truth. Is this true? How do we know? What evidence and arguments can be given in support? What other points of view might be taken, and why? What do I think about this? Are my own reasons supported by good evidence or arguments?

Generalisability and potential limitations

Whilst not presenting data that could be viewed as generalisable or otherwise, the article certainly raises profound and important questions that ought to be considered seriously by RE teachers and other RE professionals in general. The approach explained in the article has been influential, rightly, and continues to be so.

Find out more

The Contours of Critical Religious Education: Knowledge, Wisdom, Truth, British Journal of Religious Education 25,4, pages 279-291 (published online 6 July 2006), 10.1080/0141620030250403

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0141620030250403

Research Summary

This article is about John Dewey’s philosophy of education and the problems it has been accused of causing. In the USA, some have expressed concerns about a crisis of character, leading to a decline in moral behaviour in society and in schools. For some scholars, this crisis of character has been caused by Dewey’s ideas of child-centred education, whose influence has stopped children from getting the authoritative, character-building instruction that they need. The author examines these criticisms of Dewey and finds them to be misplaced. He reviews aspects of Dewey’s educational philosophy and finds that it would support good character education and education for democracy. There is plenty of relevance to RE pedagogy here, because (whilst RE is not directly mentioned), it is shown that Dewey’s ideas on pedagogy suggest ways to study content (e.g.religious beliefs and values) whilst avoiding two potential pitfalls: using content (e.g. religious beliefs and values) as items of instruction, or allowing children the ‘freedom’ to develop their own beliefs and values without challenge.

Researcher

Brian White

Research Institution

Grand Valley State University, USA

What is this about?

• Why do some scholars view John Dewey’s ‘child-centred’ philosophy of education as responsible for a ‘crisis of character’ in the USA’s society and schools?
• When Dewey’s key ideas about education are revisited, can the accusations against them be maintained?
• How do Dewey’s ideas about education really relate to issues of morality and character formation?
• What lessons for pedagogy can be drawn from this discussion?

What was done?

This is a scholarly essay, describing and evaluating criticisms of John Dewey’s philosophy of education and shaping conclusions that are of use to teachers.

Main findings and outputs

• Some critics accuse Dewey of a ‘free-wheeling child-centredness’ that prevents children from developing discipline or will. However, what Dewey actually says is that children’s interests must be harnessed and developed. This needs seriousness, absorption and purpose on the part of teachers and children.
• Some critics accuse Dewey of minimising the role of teachers, but what he says is that teachers’ guidance is crucial. They must point out obstacles and guide children through them, for instance, and must establish a democratic culture in the classroom.
• Some critics accuse Dewey of pushing academic subject content to the margins, but what he says is that a subject content-rich environment is needed, for children to examine the necessary problems and develop the necessary skills and traits (investigative, communicative, just, disciplined); natural interest must be engaged with content.
• For Dewey, the traditional, instruction-driven, obedience-driven classroom dilutes character. If students’ natural interests are ignored, if they are outwardly compliant, they will be be inwardly engaged in avoidance. The development of character through education is dependent on teachers actually getting to know who their students are as people and as thinkers. For Dewey, values, moral or character cannot be simply ‘hammered in’ to children.
• One USA character education programme, Positive Action, in a way reflects his ideas on collaboration and enquiry. Instead of being told what character is and how they should behave, students are asked how they like to be treated. They suggest the same top values of respect, fairness, etc.

Relevance to RE

There are two main ways in which this material is relevant to RE pedagogy. In the first place, it calls into serious question the pedagogy of ‘direct instruction’. If religious beliefs, values or other items of religion are simply presented to pupils to absorb or ‘learn about’ without opportunity to respond or engage, their character development will not be strengthened. A more productive pedagogy arises through the skill of matching pupils’ interests to religion and making use of their natural inclination to debate and discuss. Secondly, what Dewey says about obstacles is relevant. Religious beliefs can be used to challenge pupils’ opinions and force them to reason and develop (“but what about the idea that all life is sacred . . ?”); or vice versa (“can you see any problems with holding to the belief that all life is sacred . . ?”). Teacherly concern for pupils’ development does not mean leaving them in a comfort zone, but just the opposite.

Generalisability and potential limitations

Whilst not presenting data as such, this essay presents issues and ideas that are very worthy of general consideration by all teachers, perhaps especially those concerned with RE, moral education, citizenship education and values.

Find out more

Scapegoat: John Dewey and the character education crisis, Journal of Moral Education 44.2 pages 127-144 (published online 13 May 2015), 10.1080/03057240.2015.1028911

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057240.2015.1028911

Research Summary

Understanding religions is normally spoken of as a central aim for RE, but without discussion of what is meant by ‘understanding’. Furthermore, there could be said to be different ways in which religions can be understood. There can be understanding as a believer, based on faith; or understanding as an outsider, perhaps based on an appreciation of the history of the religion or its sociological significance. But what about understanding a religion religiously, that is, in its own terms, whether as an insider or outsider? The authors argue that a focus on its soteriological content can help with such religious understanding; that religions are essentially about human salvation, and while insiders have an understanding of what this means in practice, outsiders can still gain understanding of these religious dimensions of religion. The research should focus RE teachers’ thinking on the aims of the subject and how to fulfil them, especially because practical ideas for teaching about Sikhism are also offered.

Researchers

Karen Walshe & Geoff Teece

Research Institution

University of Exeter

What is this about?

• A central aim of RE is that pupils should understand religions, but what does this mean?There appear to be different ways in which religions might be understood – e.g. as a believer, as an ‘outside’ observer, from a sociological point of view, a historical point of view, and so on.
• What might religious understanding of religions mean? How can religions be understood in religious terms? Are only ‘inside’ believers able to have this kind of understanding?
• Or are having religious consciousness and being conscious of religion more like points on the same spectrum?
• The article uses John Hick’s point that religions are essentially soteriological (concerned with salvation) to argue that if RE focuses on the soteriology of religions, pupils will be better equipped to gain understanding of what religions mean in religious terms.
• How this translates into teaching about Sikhism is described.

What was done?

This is a research essay, reviewing educational ideas about understanding, religious understanding and understanding of religion together with theology and subsequently presenting recommendations for RE pedagogy.

Main findings and outputs

• ‘Understanding’ is a term open to different interpretations. Within RE, it has been approached in various ways. Is understanding in RE different to understanding in other subjects? Can a scholarly, objective understanding of a religion count as understanding, given that religion entails emotional commitment? Will understanding of the ‘grammar’ of a religion, i.e. of its theological content, be enough? Or is some degree of faith needed?
• The authors find the following suggestion useful as a way forward: that religious understanding is not an all-or-nothing affair but a spectrum. The difference between insider and outsider understanding of what is involved in the religion may be one of degree, and in some respects the outsider’s understanding could even be greater (an insider can always be trapped in assumptions).
• Coupled to the above point is the idea, from John Hick’s theology of religions, that soteriology is essential to religions. This means that all religions (post c. 600 BCE) are essentially focused on salvation – how people can fulfil the ultimate purposes of human life. In order to understand religions in essentially religious terms, therefore, pupils should focus on their soteriologies.
• When studying Sikhism, for instance, there are key beliefs and practices to understand. Haumai (self-centredness) is the root of earthly life’s unsatisfactoriness, but a life of sewa (selfless service) leads to gurmukh (God-centredness) and a state of mukhti (spiritual liberation). Serving in the gurdwara expresses these beliefs (during a visit, pupils could ask Sikhs about how it does so).

Relevance to RE

The research is of very direct relevance to RE, as it focuses on teaching about religions so as to promote understanding of them in their own terms, rather than in terms of history, for example, or sociology. For the authors, concentrating on the soteriological dimension of religions is a way to do this – the beliefs and practices concerned with the ultimate fulfilment of human life represent the core religious dimension of religions. Teachers could bring these emphases to their teaching in order to bring out what is distinctive in RE’s subject content, sharpen pupils’ understanding and present religions more faithfully. What seems needed, as so often, is for teachers and / or groups of teachers to try out the recommended pedagogy and make their findings available.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The ideas offered through the research are applicable to teaching about religious traditions in general and would make excellent starting points for action research.

Find out more

Understanding ‘religious understanding’ in religious education, British Journal of Religious Education 35.3 pages 313-325 (published online 14 May 2013), 10.1080/01416200.2013.794913

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01416200.2013.794913

Research Summary

This paper focuses on how young people talk about religion and diversity in a multicultural society. More specifically, it focuses on how pupils speak about Islam and Muslims. How does their speech compare with media coverage? The research is explained, including how Gerd Baumann’s terms ‘dominant’ and ‘demotic’ discourse are understood and employed in this study. Then, the project is set within the Norwegian debate about plurality. The methodology is described, and there is discussion of some of the students’ statements and the ways of speaking to which they seem to belong. The paper’s conclusion, on the consequences of findings for school and RE, is very relevant to RE teaching, recommending that pupils’ own experiences of meetings with people from diverse backgrounds should be included more in lessons, as a way to challenge stereotypes.

Researcher

Marie von der Lippe

Research Institution

University of Bergen, Norway

What is this about?

• How do young people (13-15 years old) talk about religion and diversity, in a multicultural society?
• How, specifically, do they speak about Muslims?
• What do the terms ‘dominant discourse’ and ‘demotic discourse’ mean?
• How do these issues affect a contemporary society, i.e. Norway?
• How can pupils’ own experiences of meetings with people from diverse backgrounds be included in lessons, and what will be the effects of this?

What was done?

The data were acquired from 20 individual interviews with students aged 13–15 years. The students came from four different schools in Bergen (three public and a Christian private school) and have Christian (8), Muslim (6) and non‐religious backgrounds (6). The sample consisted of 11 girls and 9 boys with various national and ethnic backgrounds (Norwegian, Iraqi, Kurdish, Somali, Philippine, Yemeni, Creole, Zanzibaran and some with mixed Norwegian and non‐Norwegian backgrounds).

Main findings and outputs

• ‘Dominant discourse’ refers to generally accepted ways of speaking, ‘demotic discourse’ refers to individual speech or conversation that challenges dominant discourse.
• In Norway can be found several dominant discourses about diversity: including, Norway is an open, tolerant society – and on the other hand, immigration can be seen as a threat to Norwegian values. “I am not a racist, but . . .”
• Young people can draw on the dominant discourses and also on their own more positive demotic discourses, based on their friendship experiences. For example, ‘Rachel’ is a white Christian 15 year-old with friends from different cultural and religious backgrounds. She complains about racism and her mother’s negative attitudes to Muslims – but then complains about the numbers of ‘foreigners’ in Oslo.
• ‘Christian’, of similar age and background to ‘Rachel’ , also has friends from different cultures and religions. He laments media stereotypes of Muslims as terrorists but in expressing disapproval of terrorism implies that it is linked to Islam. For the researcher, the young people are trying out different points of view in the interviews, but it is clear that both dominant and demotic dicourses work on them.
• ‘Aisha’, of a black African Muslim background, speaks through dominant discourse when complaining about how Muslims are perceived in Norway (Muslim=terrorist). When she speaks about her own views and experiences, a more positive picture emerges: Muslims are different from one another, the Qur’an forbids suicide and Islam should not be linked to terrorism.

Relevance to RE

The analysis of young people’s speech about diversity is very relevant to RE, especially given that the article’s conclusion takes the form of recommendations to RE teachers. We need to teach pupils to be critical of how religions are portrayed in the media. This should help pupils to understand how they speak about others and why they do – and what consequences this may have for those affected by prejudice. It is also very important to focus on pupils’ own direct experiences with religious and cultural diversity. These tend to be more positive than the dominant discourse.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The sample is fairly small (20 pupils) and the context is Norway. Similar issues are certainly experienced in the UK, however, and RE teachers may find that the principle that young people’s direct experience of diversity is more positive than that presented in the media applies beyond Norway. At the very least, this is a useful and interesting hypothesis to test.

Find out more

Young people’s talk about religion and diversity: a qualitative study of Norwegian students aged 13–15, British Journal of Religious Education 33.2 pages 127-142 (published online 18 February 2011), 10.1080/01416200.2011.543590

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01416200.2011.543590

Research Summary

Teacher-pupil communication in RE is changing. Society is becoming more diverse and more individualistic, and teachers cannot communicate with pupils in the framework of a single religion or world-view. Inspiration is a particularly motivating kind of communication, though its consequences have as much to do with those inspired as those who inspire. It involves activating someone’s potential. The research (undertaken in Dutch Catholic schools in 2006) is a study of whether teachers can be inspirational and what factors are involved, concluding that inspirational teachers are those who help their pupils to build meaning. The article is relevant to RE teachers, especially because it concludes with recommendations for curriculum and especially pedagogy.

Researcher

Theo van der Zee

Research Institution

Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands

What is this about?

• In an increasingly diverse and individualistic society, according to what kinds of principles should teachers communicate with pupils?
• Inspiration is a possible guiding idea, having as much to do with those who are inspired as those who inspire, aiming at activating others’ potential.
• The researchers studied pupils and teachers in Dutch Catholic schools, investigating whether teachers could be inspirational to pupils, and through what qualities or factors.
• The key theme in the findings is that teachers are inspirational to pupils when they communicate meaning through teaching and enable pupils to build meaning through learning.

What was done?

The methodology was via a questionnaire survey of pupils, parents and teachers across all Dutch Catholic schools, with 1, 179 respondents in total.

Main findings and outputs

• Teachers are inspirational to pupils when they show the following qualities:
  Good at subject matter, explains clearly;
  Demonstrates meaning of life; stimulates thinking;
  Devotes time and attention devoted to weak pupils;
  Stimulates hard work and performance.
• The above teacher qualities encourage the following types of pupil response:
  social virtues e.g. justice and social responsibility;
  knowledge and insight; curiosity and a thirst for knowledge;
  spirituality and a sense of transcendence, a sense of beauty and gratitude.
• Teachers’ and pupils’ personal backgrounds make little difference to the above factors.
• In relation to RE teaching, firstly, there should be ample teacher-pupil communication, because this can clearly help develop pupils’ personal potential.
• Secondly, the focus of teacher-pupil communication in RE should be imparting meaning. But what does this mean? It means that teachers should communicate their own views of the meaning of what is taught (i.e. how what they teach about relates to larger contexts such as God, the meaning of life, or what the item taught about is good for, or may be good for). Teachers can scaffold pupils’ learning by introducing such connections and asking students to respond and to develop their reasons.
• If teachers can give the meaning of beliefs, thoughts, actions, etc., so in turn can pupils. Teachers can show that the development of such virtues can succeed, offering pupils the chance to contribute to a better society. This goes further than structuring learning around ‘big questions’.

Relevance to RE

The research results in recommendations for RE, which teachers might take into account when planning and teaching lessons. To put a specific example to the ‘imparting meaning’ ideas listed in the previous section: what is the meaning of the Hajj? How does it relate to other pillars of Islam, such as Shahadah or Zakat? How does it fit into a Muslim’s overall sense of the meaning of life? What is it good for? How might the thoughts, beliefs and actions associated with the Hajj bring positive influences to the world? Teachers need to achieve a balance between explaining their own points of view on these questions to pupils – demonstrating the connectedness – and encouraging and enabling pupils to respond, building up their own ideas. Teachers could plan further ‘inspirational’ teaching around other examples from different religious traditions.

Generalisability and potential limitations

Generalisability can be judged to be good, as the sample is reasonably large and the selection of questions and analysis of data are thorough and thoughtful. The author acknowledges some limitations. e.g. the research is confined to Dutch Catholic education and also that further research should consider the fact that inspiration can be negative as well as positive.

Find out more

Inspiration: a thought-provoking concept for RE teachers (published online 22 September 2011), British Journal of Religious Education 34.1 pages 21-34, 10.1080/01416200.2011.601908

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01416200.2011.601908

Research Summary

What view of educational content or knowledge does philosophy for children have, and what kind of thinking does it promote amongst pupils? E.g. does it lead them to firm, absolute conclusions, or does it take away authority and guidance? The research (based on analysing theory and field data) shows that philosophy for children avoids these extremes and enables pupils to be evaluative. This is argued to be positive for RE lessons, because it helps pupils find meaning in their lives and helps social cohesion. Thus, RE teachers ought to be aware of these findings and consider whether or not philosophy for children might be used in our classrooms.

Researchers

Nastasya van der Straten Waillet, Isabelle Roskam & Cécile Possoz

Research Institution

Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium

What is this about?

• The context for the research is reforms to RE in French-speaking Belgium. In other places philosophy for children had been introduced, but there was concern that this approach took firm guidance away from pupils.
• Philosophy for children is explained.
• Absolutism and relativism are explained, and philosophy for children placed in between them.
• Philosophy for children is shown to help pupils to evaluate religious material – and this is argued to help them to develop personally and to to help with cohesion in society.

What was done?

The research consists mostly of review and discussion of theories and types of pedagogy, though some field data fom other studies are also brought in.

Main findings and outputs

• Philosophy for children: children should be enquirers, pursuing questions and developing critical thinking. In the pedagogical method of a community of inquiry, they consider a stimulus (e.g. text, picture), raise related questions, focus down jointly on one question and are guided by the teacher through a discussion designed to illuminate different points of view and decision-making.
• It isn’t an absolutist process, inquiry and decision-making are ongoing and no fixed, objective truth can be known.
• Neither is it a relativist process, critical thinking and argumentation are important and there is no assumption that all points of view are equally true.
• Philosophy for children is between the two extremes, calling for ongoing exploration of different views and ideas and respecting pupils’ rights to correct themselves and change their minds.
• Being evaluative makes philosophy for children highly suited to RE. It helps young people to make meaning for themselves. This is good for democracy and helps pupils as future citizens (people of different religious and non-religious persuasions should be prepared to listen to and discuss views with one another).
• In the approach taken within the Hampshire Agreed RE syllabus, teachers create communities of inquiry on religious concepts, using a five-step method: pupils communicating understanding of the concept, applying this understanding to different contexts, inquiring about a question that emerged through the first two steps, contextualising the concept and related questions in various religious and secular contexts, and finally evaluating the concept from several viewpoints including their own.

Relevance to RE

The research is relevant to RE curriculum planning but especially to pedagogy. Teachers who already use philosophy for children within RE might use the research as a means to know and understand more about its purposes and processes. The research suggests that philosophy for children can help pupils to gain improved skills of evaluation, so teachers who are aiming to improve their pupils’ evaluative skills might be directed to the use of philosophy for children as a method of teaching.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The research appears to offer generalisable findings about the uses and possible benefits of philosophy for education, but like much research on pedagogy, depends on teachers to work with the methods in their own classrooms and reflect on their practice. Within that, it provides a useful criterion: did the teaching enable pupils to be more evaluative than before? How might it be developed so as to enable them to improve their evaluative skills further, in future?

Find out more

On the epistemological features promoted by ‘Philosophy for Children’ and their psychological advantages when incorporated into RE, British Journal of Religious Education 37.3 pages 273-292 (published online 30 July 2014), 10.1080/01416200.2014.937795

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01416200.2014.937795

Research Summary

The book Signposts – Policy and practice for teaching about religions and non-religious worldviews in intercultural education (Jackson 2014) is a summary of Council of Europe initiatives on the dimension of religions and non-religious convictions within intercultural education, written by Professor Robert Jackson to help implementation of Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec (2008) 12 in the member countries. Signposts is structured around responses to a questionnaire sent to the ministries of education in the 47 member states, asking respondents to identify difficulties anticipated for policymakers and practitioners in implementing the 2008 recommendation in their own national setting, The book is structured around these issues and informed by examples from research and good practice. This article gives details of Signposts before concentrating on a partner project at The European Wergeland Centre (EWC) in Oslo, transforming Signposts into a teacher training module. It outlines the module, giving safe space as an example of the themes covered. The material is of interest to RE teachers and teacher educators, providing an introduction to resources intended to be used in either university-based or school-based teacher training.

Researcher

Kevin O’Grady

Research Institution

University of Warwick

What is this about?

• What is the background to the book Signposts, and what are the book’s key themes?
• How is the Signposts teacher training module organised, and how is it intended to be used?
• What do Signposts and the teacher training module have to say about the issue of safe space, as an example of one of the issues covered?
• Where can Signposts and the teacher training module be obtained?

What was done?

The article is an introductory summary of Signposts and the related teacher training module, written by one of the consultants on the EWC teacher training project.

Main findings and outputs

• Signposts’ themes grow out of Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec (2008): understanding of cultural diversity must include attention to the role of religions and non-religious convictions in society. The book addresses potential difficulties identified by education ministries in the 47 member states.
• The form of education advocated is distinct from faith nurture, and concerned with understanding of plurality, though complementary with faith nurture. Attitudes and competences are involved: e.g. challenging racism, fostering tolerance.
• Seven themes are identified: terminology associated with teaching about religions and non-religious convictions, didactics, safe space, religions in the media, non-religious convictions, human rights and linking schools to communities.
• The EWC teacher training module team includes colleagues from Albania, Greece, Norway, Sweden and the UK. In the module, Signposts chapters are summarised into key points, links to other Council of Europe themes – e.g. Competences for Democratic Culture – and personal and professional implications for teachers.
• Following each chapter summary, follow-up activities are presented, enabling trainers to help teachers to reflect on their practice and improve their pedagogy.
• The module is suitable for university-based or school-based teacher training. All sections could be used, or some selected to address particular needs.
• Safe space is an example of an issue covered, referring to an inclusive classroom atmosphere where young people discuss their views openly together. Activities include practice writing to parents in preparation to teach their children about a controversial issue, considering classroom ground rules and analysing examples of pupil speech.

Relevance to RE

The Signposts and Signposts teacher training programme taken as a whole is designed with the clear aims of helping teachers to teach about religions and non-religious worldviews and helping teacher educators to prepare teachers for this task. The article reported here gives initial information about the programme. Interested teachers and teacher educators are advised to download the documents from the links provided below.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The article is a presentation and discussion of some research-based professional development resources for RE teachers and teacher educators, which should be of general interest and use. Again, Signposts is structured around potential problems in implementing Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec (2008), identified by education ministries across the 47 Council of Europe member states, indicating that there is a very broad basis for focusing on the issues chosen.

Find out more

Kevin O’Grady, Signposts: guidance from the Council of Europe on the dimension of religions and non-religious convictions in intercultural education, SO-didaktik (2017; 56-60), also available for free download at https://issuu.com/so-didaktik/docs/so-didaktik_nr4_2017

Robert Jackson, (2014) Signposts – Policy and practice for teaching about religions and non-religious worldviews in intercultural education, Strasbourg (Council of Europe Publishing), also available for free download at http://ru.theewc.org/Content/Biblioteka/COE-Steering-documents/Recommendations/Signposts-Policy-and-practice-for-teaching-about-religions-and-non-religious-world-views-in-intercultural-education

The Signposts teacher training module is available for free download at https://theewc.org/resources/signposts-teacher-training-module-teaching-about-religions-and-non-religious-world-views-in-intercultural-education/

A blog piece by Ana Perona-Fjelstad, Angelos Vallianatos and Kevin O’Grady about the Signposts teacher training module is now available at https://www.reonline.org.uk/professional-development/the-signposts-teacher-training-module/

Research Summary

This is a report of a doctoral study on the motivation of 12–14‐year‐old religious education pupils in England. The study involved four action research cycles of teaching a topic, asking pupils about their learning experiences and building their views in to plans for the next topic. At the close, key factors for pupil motivation were identified: dialogue with difference, existential and ethical interest and personal significance. The research is of very direct relevance to RE pedagogy and gives recommendations for RE pedagogy in its conclusions, as well as remarks on how action research can be used as a teacher development methodology.

Researchers

Kevin O’Grady

Research Institution

University of Warwick

What is this about?

• According to the pupils themselves, what motivates them to engage and learn in RE? A class of 31 12-14-year old pupils were studied, over a period of about 18 months.
• Once we know what pupils say is motivating about learning in RE, what can we do with these data? The research developed by planning subsequent teaching topics in the light of what pupils had said, then collecting further data from them, so that factors in their motivation were identified over time and pedagogy strengthened over time.
• Various factors building pupil motivation were identified and described: dialogue with difference, existential and ethical interest and personal significance.
• The research gives evidence about good RE pedagogy, and also suggests that action research is an appropriate and useful way for RE teachers to build good pedagogy.

What was done?

The action research methodology involved teaching a topic, observing levels of pupil motivation during lessons and keeping notes on these, getting pupils to complete questionnaires at the close of each topic and interviewing them in groups about the questionnaire responses.

Main findings and outputs

• Topic 1 was Islam, peace and surrender. The key motivation factor emerging was dialogue, with other students (the class was about one third Muslim) or with Islamic beliefs in abstract. It meant an equal emphasis between attention to religious education content and pupils’ responses and reflections.
• Topic 2 was interfaith relations, reconciliation and peace. The central motivation factor was identified as existential interest: pupils valued the chance to focus on important human life situations and their meanings.
• Topic 3 was Inspiration, Hajj and Passover. The key motivation factor was personal significance. Students had found the idea of inspiration to be less interesting than what had developed in their discussions around the idea of commitment, in religious life and in their own lives.
• Topic 4 was Hinduism and Creation. The most motivating factors were investigating different views of the universe (i.e. Hindu and scientific) and ethical beliefs (i.e. karma).
• Overall, at the close, aspects of learning in RE most likely to motivate pupils were summarised and a recommendation made: that RE should be a dialogue with difference, aimed at building existential and ethical interest and personal significance for pupils.
• The action research methodology was effective in generating the above recommendation from pupils’ actual words. It was not found to be a neat or objective process: pupils never distinguished between their learning in lessons and their discussions during group interviews, and though the research was intended to investigate their motivation, it evidently increased it.

Relevance to RE

There are two main ways in which RE teachers can use this research. The first way is through its findings; they can prepare topics and lessons for their pupils which provide plenty of opportunities for dialogues with those of different beliefs, for reflecting upon big questions and issues of right and wrong and for thinking about what matters to pupils personally (noting that all this was done by matching content from religions to these concerns). For more details of what was taught in the lessons and how it was taught, readers are recommended to read the original article. The second way is through the study’s methodology; they can carry out similar investigations with pupils of their own. These can be small-scale to begin with (the research reported above had its origins in a shorter masters project).

Generalisability and potential limitations

The data arise from a particular context, a multi-cultural, lower secondary school classroom in Sheffield. The author takes the following position regarding their generalisability: a classroom in a different location, or with a different kind of class, presents a comparable context. Thus, the data might be used as starting points for improving pedagogy in a new setting, but it is up to the teacher to act as a researcher and re-investigate them.

Find out more

‘How far down can you go? Can you get reincarnated as a floorboard?’ Religious education pedagogy, pupil motivation and teacher intelligence, Educational Action Research 16.3 pages 361-376 (published online 28 August 2008), 10.1080/09650790802260315

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09650790802260315

Research Summary

The aim of organising learning around ‘big ideas’ has been around for a very long time, but the practical issues of doing it are under-researched. The researchers focus on curriculum and pedagogy development projects in science and cross-curricular teaching in Australia. They describe how the use of ‘big ideas’ is to enhance teaching and learning is more complex than it might at first appear, but also how their enquiries revealed ways to do it that result in real learning gains (e.g. pupils become more able to deal with high level content or questions, become more able to link different parts of their learning together and become more able to link what they learn to their own experience of the world). In brief, ‘big ideas’ have to be phrased in a sentence containing a verb and have to be made ‘generative’ – that is, central to subjects, richly linked to other ideas, accessible to students and offering teachers ways into topics and learning activities. The article suggests ways to develop big RE ideas, which will be outlined below in Relevance to RE.

Researchers

Ian Mitchell, Stephen Keast, Debra Panizzon & Judie Mitchell

Research Institution

Monash University, Australia

What is this about?

• What does it mean to organise learning around ‘big ideas’?
• What are the best ways to develop, phrase and present a ‘big idea’?
• How might organising teaching around ‘big ideas’ enhance learning?
• The research is on science education in Australian schools (but the findings are transferable to RE in the UK or elsewhere).

What was done?

This is secondary analysis of data from two previous projects, organised so as to present and evaluate the use of ‘big ideas’ to teachers. One project was about science teaching, the other about cross-curricular teaching; both sought to investigate ways to extend pupils’ learning.

Main findings and outputs

• ‘Big ideas’ are not concepts or themes. They are ‘full standalone statements, which give a sense of enduring understandings that students need to develop, rather than simply noting down headings, phrases or questions’ . For example, instead of ‘Geological Forces’, one teacher found the following ‘big idea’ to be powerful in generating learning: ‘there are geological forces that destroy physical features and forces that create them’. Big ideas are ‘patterns that connect the dots of otherwise fragmented knowledge’. They need to be phrased as a sentence with a verb.
• The force of the geology example was to link different ideas and help pupils to look at the environment. It ‘organises a number of smaller ideas or concepts and multiple experiences’.
• A ‘big idea’ has to be ‘generative’ (of learning). This means enabling teachers to rethink teaching, being central to a subject, linking richly to different ideas or points, and being accessible to pupils. ‘Big ideas’ should also give teachers ways in to topics and suggest learning activities.
• ‘Big ideas’ have to be developed by teachers, through reflection and in practice. Phrasing them in sentences allows them to be part of a teaching and learning story and to bring concepts together. It isn’t simple. Teachers can work together to do it – it helps teams to teach more consistently and demands very good subject knowledge.
• Teachers should also have ‘big ideas’ about learning to guide their teaching – and should make these clear to pupils.

Relevance to RE

There seems to be a natural fit between ‘big ideas’ and RE pedagogy. RE teachers often think about planning learning around ‘big questions’, and ‘big ideas’ might be seen as an evidence-based extension of the approach. We could try re-thinking some well-known topic headings. So, for example: key Buddhist beliefs and practices becomes Buddhism is unique amongst the world’s religions because of the absence of belief in a creator God (key stage 3/4); festivals and celebrations in Christianity becomes remembering events in the life of Jesus is the most important part of a Christian’s life (key stage 2/3); different religions and ways of life becomes religion is important to people in different ways (key stage 1/2) . Note that these ‘big ideas’ offer plenty of scope for pupils to research, link to previous learning, reflect and evaluate; pupils might end up agreeing, disagreeing, partly agreeing, or whatever, towards the close of a series of lessons – what is important is to give reasons, developing and demonstrating understanding. More philosophically or sociologically critical ‘big ideas’ could be trialled with older or more able pupils: ‘there is as much evidence for God’s non-existence as for God’s existence’ or ‘religion does an equal amount of harm and good to the world’.

Generalisability and potential limitations

The findings are based on extensive research. An element in the findings is that truly generative ‘big ideas’ tend to be shaped by teachers through practice, in the light of which it is up to interested individual RE teachers, or groups of RE teachers, to work on and develop the approach – the suggestions in the Relevance to RE section are for discussion, experiment and modification; and, naturally, colleagues will be able to put many other suggestions.

Find out more

Using ‘big ideas’ to enhance teaching and student learning, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice 23.5 pages 121-160 (published online 19 August 2016), 10.1080/13540602.2016.1218328

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13540602.2016.1218328