Christians who hold a literalist interpretation of scripture will often find themselves in conflict with modern scientific thinking. Both religion and science are concerned in some way with how people can know what is real, what is true. Christianity makes certain claims about, for instance, the nature of God, and his ‘miraculous’ involvement in the world, and science makes other claims that either contradict the claims of Christianity or even deny that such things as God and miracles exist.

The controversy between science and Christianity began in earnest in the 19th century with significant discoveries in geology and then biology. Geologists began to establish that the world in which we live was many millions of years old and could not be just 5000 years old as suggested in the stories of Genesis. Charles Darwin then published his ‘On the origin of species’ which established that humans had evolved over millennia, and had not been placed intact into the Garden of Eden merely thousands of years previously. What these two discoveries established was that the claims made in the Bible, if taken literally, were in fact incorrect from a scientific point of view. People therefore asked, if these claims are incorrect, how much more of the Bible is incorrect – including the central claims of Christianity?

It has been the task of modern scientists and Christian thinkers to tackle this issue. Some fundamentalist Christians refuse to accept the findings of science, and although still a powerful body in some churches, they are often viewed as extreme by other Christians. Other, more moderate, Christians however, accept that scientific findings have demonstrated a need to re-interpret the Bible and that the claims made about the world and God are written in a language exclusive to religion. To interpret this language scientifically is therefore viewed as about as similar as trying to play football with a table tennis bat.

Religious belief (like new discoveries in science?) often requires a ‘leap of faith’ at some point in the thinking and perception of the believer. In the same way that an analysis of human emotions such as ‘love’ can only be fully appreciated through experience, so science can only lead so far in explaining the nature of faith. Although studies in the sociology and psychology of religion offer scientific explanations of man’s need for religion (e.g. Weber, Marx, Freud, Jung), many still feel that a life lived according to faith makes more sense and is more meaningful than a life lived without it.

Albert Einstein, although sceptical about a personal God, said, “A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty – it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man”. However, other eminent scientists are deeply religious and find the co-existence of faith and science as totally complimentary. It is entirely possible then, for a Christian scientist to say that the stories of creation in Genesis Chapters 1 and 2 are a true ‘myth’ about the relationship between God and humans, while still holding that the cosmos was created 14 billion years ago in a Big Bang.

Conflict between scientific discoveries and faith are often due to the conflict between contrasting world views upon which so much is invested. Some philosophers have coined the term ‘paradigm shift’ to explain what happens when humans retain concepts of a by-gone age into the present and this results in an inevitable conflict. Empirical language, or the language of science, is descriptive and analytical. Religious texts are usually from another historical context and their language is often emotive and poetic. It is therefore important to understand the context within which language is used, and to apply appropriate rules that will help to maintain clarity of thinking. Christianity makes claims that suggest a reality beyond the empirical. Its beliefs about the human ‘self’ include both a body and a spirit or soul. Christianity also teaches about an after-life, an eschatology, and believers have faith and personal experience as evidence to support this. There are a huge variety of positions regarding science and Christian faith, both in their way sources of information about the world or descriptions of reality. The Faraday Institute is a UK-based research institute improving public understanding of the relationship of religious belief, including ethics, and the sciences.

All Christians emphasise the importance of conscience, although for groups like the Quakers this is of paramount importance. Pentecostalists and Charismatic Christians also place great emphasis on the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within believers, guiding and directing them in their daily lives to know and live out the will of God.

Leaders in the various churches are chosen either directly by their local congregation, or by the regional leadership through a selection committee. As priests or ministers they may be known as Father, Reverend, Vicar, Canon, etc., or in some non-conformist churches, simply by their everyday names. Most recognised leaders however will hold a considerable authority within their local parish or congregation, and quite often more generally ithin the surrounding community. In the case of priests of the Church of England, Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions they may wear distinctive clothing which indicates that they are professional clergy. Other church clergy will also often wear the clerical or ‘dog’ collar as a visible symbol of their position as Christian leaders.

In Britain, the authority of the Church of England is recognised through the legislative power it has. As the established Church in England and Wales, the Queen is its Head, and Bishops sit in the House of Lords and thus hold a key to legislative influence. Prayers are said each day in Parliament and there is a Parliamentary Chaplain. The Archbishop of Canterbury’s London residence is opposite the Houses of Parliament in London and demonstrates the historic balance of power and authority between church and state. In recognising the authority of the Church, the state also has church dignitaries present on all state occasions. Even within the media, in spite of secularisation, popular television programmes such as Songs of Praise on Sunday, and the daily act of worship or Thought for the Day on national radio, are still popular with both those involved in church worship and those less committed.

The influence of the Pope as an international spokesman, and to a lesser extent the Archbishop of Canterbury and leaders of other Christian denominations, is still considerable, and many world leaders look to their church leaders for guidance on ethical, moral and spiritual, and sometimes political matters. Many priests and ministers are also significant influences for change within their local communities: their comparatively high education, experience of public speaking and willingness to express opinions on subjects with authority, means that they often become prominent spokesmen and women for their communities. A number of church leaders act as school governors, town councillors, and chairpersons for various local and national charities.

On a political level, politicians know the power, influence and authority Christian pressure groups can exert. In the USA, the ‘Bible belt’ of the southern states of America can, and often does, influence even the election of Presidents of the USA. In the UK, politicians tend to be much more sensitive about religious issues, often seeking balanced media coverage of any personal religious affiliations.

Commitment to Christian faith in Jesus entails responsibility to other people. Many stories in the gospels of Jesus show him assisting people who were under-privileged, sick, distressed or outcast, and the New Testament commands his followers to respond in the same way to such needs. The extent of Christian engagement in social action will vary though: some evangelical Christians might say that the Church’s main task is to focus on people’s spiritual welfare, while others argue that Jesus did good to all who were in need, regardless of the recipient’s spiritual status.

Although all Christians aspire to live like Jesus, there are some whose lives show special spiritual maturity or influence. Christians such as Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa and Father Kolbe all provide positive examples of Christian dedication and commitment. Other examples include William Wilberforce (1759-1833 slavery), Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845 penal reform), William Booth (1829-1912 alcoholism & poverty), Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965 under-developed nations), Fr. David Randall (1947-1996 HIV/Aids) and Archbishop Desmond Tutu (1931- apartheid activist).

The term ‘saints’ is used in the New Testament to refer to all Christian believers; however there have been some Christians down through the ages who have set a particular example of faith, especially those who were martyred for refusing to deny their allegiance to Jesus. Such examples have been immortalised by the Church by giving them the title of ‘saint’, and often attributing to them special status as guides for travellers, or patrons of particular countries etc. Special procedures have been developed for identifying modern saints, and these include evidence of a particularly holy life, the attribution of miracles to them, etc. Many protestant denominations are reluctant to give such special status to past Christians, believing that such recognition detracts from a central focus on Jesus.

Until the 1967 thesis of Lynn White Jr (1907-1987), claiming that Christianity was to blame for our present ecological crisis, most Christian apologists and theologians had little to say about ecology. Since then however, much has been written on the topic, and Pope Francis published as his first encyclical the document ‘Laudato Si’, or ‘Praise be to You’, with the subtitle ‘on care of our common home’ in May 2015. This indicates that the topic is now taken more seriously, and Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) has been identified as the patron saint of ecology.

In the past, western Christians tended to use the Creation Stories of Genesis chapters 1 and 2 to highlight the unique position of humans as made in the image of God, and to use this as justification for humans to have ‘dominion’ over the resources of the natural world, including the animal kingdom. Today, that is usually understood as our special responsibility rather than as humankind’s special privilege. As a result, attitudes to animal rights and the environment feature large in the writing and actions of most church leaders, although there are still some Christians who argue that it is the human soul/spirit that that should be the focus of attention, not the environment.

Within Christianity there is huge diversity of belief and practice: perhaps it might be more accurate to speak of many ‘Christianities’ rather than of a singular ‘Christianity’.

As in all religions, individual expressions of commitment and devotional piety vary; some Christians are totally devoted to their particular Christian path, spending every moment that they can to meet with other Christians, to read their Bible and pray, while for others, it is simply the religion they grew up in, and thus a mark of their identity or heritage, but little more. For some, the faith is something particularly experienced at an emotional level, while for others it is Christianity’s beliefs and doctrines that make so much sense, and which provide moral direction and guidance in life. Sometimes these various differences of commitment-level and emphasis are denominational, but sometimes it just comes down to the particular beliefs or devotional piety of that individual. For some groups, their expression of Christian faith is so strictly adhered to that they choose not to mix with others who do not follow the same Christian path. Examples of this are the Amish and the Plymouth Brethren.

David Barrett states that there are around thirty three thousand different Christian denominations worldwide[1], and in the UK these include the established Anglican communion of the Church of England, the Roman Catholic church, various Greek and Russian Orthodox churches, Baptists, Methodists, Quakers (also called the Society of Friends), Salvation Army, Brethren, Pentecostal churches, and many others. The UK is also home to several groups who consider themselves Christian, but are not always accepted as such by the more mainstream denominations. The best known of these are the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints (otherwise known as Mormons), Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Unitarians.

Today, there are a growing number of new churches which have no particular affiliation to any of the historical denominations, but which are independently run and organised, even though possibly in partnership with other similar churches in other towns or cities of the UK or abroad. These are often non-liturgical (i.e. they don’t follow a printed order of service), they make significant use of modern musical instruments and computerised electronics, and they are often attractive to young people and university students. Such churches will often take names like, Alive, Hillsong, Vineyard, or Cornerstone, and they frequently meet in rented buildings rather than in their own purpose-built churches. In our major cities there are also a growing number of independent Pentecostal groups run by and for black or Asian Christian communities.

Differences between the various denominations may be based on their form and style of worship, aspects of their theology, or their administrative structure and organisational hierarchy. On the other hand, individual churches of the same denomination might also vary in some of these ways, and today, you will almost certainly find individual members of any given church who will have very different beliefs from the other members of the same church.

[1] Barrett and co-author Todd Johnson state there are 33,820 denominations; World Christian Trends AD30-AD2200 (2001) William Carey Library, California: p7

Differences between the various denominations may be based on their form and style of worship, aspects of their theology, or their administrative structure and organisational hierarchy. On the other hand, individual churches of the same denomination might also vary in some of these ways, and today, you will almost certainly find individual members of any given church who will have very different beliefs from the other members of the same church.

This is particularly true of the Church of England and the Anglican communion, it’s colonial offshoots across the Commonwealth and further afield. At its formation in the 1500s Henry VIII established a Catholic church, but of Britain alone, and separate from the authority of the Pope in Rome. Later, it took on a more Protestant theology, but retained the liturgy and form of the Catholic church.

In its modern form, individual parishes of the Church of England and Wales may still have an emphasis in one or other of these different directions: some are very Catholic, venerating Mary, using candles and incense, even using Catholic language and genuflections, and, to a visitor at their services, seem almost identical to a Catholic church. Other Anglican churches are much more Protestant, maybe still following the general service order of the Church of England, but in every other respect reflecting more the theology and liturgical practice of many non-conformist churches. The worldwide Anglican communion is also divided on the ordination of women priests and issues of sexuality, with some groups, such as the Episcopal church of USA feeling that it needs to become more liberal in its theology and practice, while Anglican Christians in Africa and other southern countries retain a more conservative or traditionalist social outlook. Even within Britain itself, special provision has had to be made for those Anglicans who do not feel that they can accept ministry from women priests, with special arrangements being made to ensure that their individual spiritual provision is not compromised.

Historically the Church has always struggled to understand and define the person of Jesus. One key element of this is known as the Christological debate: In what sense was Jesus both God and man? Another debate has focussed on sin and free will: is humankind born sinful and only capable of salvation if God chooses to save him/her (pre-destination), or do we each have free will to choose or reject God’s salvation (sometimes called Arminianism)? A third area of theological controversy concerns the purpose of Jesus’ death (sometimes called Atonement Theory): was His death in order to ‘pay the price’ for sin? (i.e. to satisfy God’s need for justice, having been sinned against), or was it simply the perfect example of the sacrifice we should all be willing to make in giving our life in service to God?

During the early centuries of the Church, these issues were hotly debated, and the issue of the Trinity was only settled when various Church Councils and Synods formulated an agreed doctrine (e.g. the Nicene Creed) and then rejected all of the other possibilities as heresies.