Jihad is often wrongly translated as ‘Holy War’. Jihad means ‘to struggle in the way of Allah’ and as Greater Jihad is the personal struggle made by every Muslim to devote his or her life to carrying out Allah’s will.

The most excellent jihad is the uttering of truth in the presence of an unjust ruler. (Hadith).

Lesser Jihad: many Muslims believe that the fight against evil and the preservation of Islam may sometimes justify going to war. This is described as Harb al-Muqadis: a Holy War.

The Prophet was asked about people fighting because they are brave, or in honour of a certain loyalty, or to show off: which of them fights for the cause of Allah? He replied, ‘The person who struggles so that Allah’s word is supreme is the one serving Allah’s cause’ (Hadith).

Islam teaches that self-defence is a just cause for war, but Muslims are forbidden from being the first to attack.

Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors (Surah 2:190).

A war cannot be described as jihad if:

• the war is started by a political leader rather than a religious leader;
• an individual person declares war without the backing of the Muslim community;
• the war is aggressive not defensive;
• peaceful ways of solving the problem have not been tried first;
• the purpose of the war is to force people to convert to Islam;
• the purpose of the war is to gain land or power;
• innocent women and children are put at physical risk;
• trees, crops and animals have not been protected;
• the war involves the destruction of homes or places of worship.

Jihad is a way to peace and the purpose is to create a society where Muslims can worship Allah in peace. If the enemy offers peace, then Muslims too must put down their weapons. Muslims are highly critical of any struggle or fighting between Muslim countries as this is completely goes against the concept of jihad.

Islam teaches that Allah is the creator of the world. Humans have the role of ‘vice-regents’ or ‘trustees’ or Khalifah– they are to look after the world and rule it as Allah wished. However, they do not own it.

So set thou thy face steadily and truly to the Faith: (establish) Allah’s handiwork according to the pattern on which He has made mankind: no change (let there be) in the work (wrought) by Allah: that is the standard Religion: but most among mankind understand not (Surah 30:30).

Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord. And it is He who spread out the earth, and set thereon mountains standing firm and (flowing) rivers: and fruit of every kind He made in pairs, two and two: He draweth the night as a veil o’er the Day. Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who consider! And in the earth are tracts (diverse though) neighbouring, and gardens of vines and fields sown with corn, and palm trees-growing out of single roots or otherwise: watered with the same water, yet some of them We make more excellent than others to eat. Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who understand! (Surah 13:2-4).

Say: “Shall I seek for (my) Cherisher other than Allah, when He is the Cherisher of all things (that exist)? Every soul draws the meed of its acts on none but itself: no bearer of burdens can bear of burdens can bear the burden of another. Your goal in the end is towards Allah: He will tell you the truth of the things wherein ye disputed.” It is He Who hath made you (His) agents, inheritors of the earth: He hath raised you in ranks, some above others: that He may try you in the gifts He hath given you: for thy Lord is quick in punishment: yet He is indeed Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful (Surah 6:164-165).

Many traditional Muslim countries are dry and arid with large areas of desert. It is only to be expected then that Islam should be particularly concerned with plant life and the environment.

Islamic medicine has always concentrated on the use of drugs and herbs from the environment rather than on surgery. Al-Razi (d. 925 CE) was the first scientist to distinguish between smallpox and measles and Ibn Sina (d.1037 CE) described how epidemics spread.

The teachings of the Qur’an stress the responsibility of humanity.

It is He Who hath made you (His) agents, inheritors of the earth (Surah 6:165).

The Muslim representative at the World Wide Fund for Nature at Assisi in 1986, Dr Abdullah Omar Nasseef, stressed the human responsibility to look after the earth:

‘The central concept of Islam is tawheed or the Unity of God. Allah is Unity; and His Unity is also reflected in the unity of mankind, and the unity of man and nature. His trustees are responsible for maintaining the unity of His creation, the integrity of the Earth, its flora and fauna, its wildlife and natural environment. Unity cannot be had by discord, by setting one need against another or letting one end predominate over another; it is maintained by balance and harmony. There Muslims say that Islam is the middle path and we will be answerable for how we have walked this path, how we have maintained balance and harmony in the whole of creation around us.’

So unity, trusteeship and accountability, that is tawheed, khalifa and akhrah, the three central concepts of Islam, are also the pillars of the environmental ethics of Islam. They constitute the basic values taught by the Qur’an. It is these values which led Muhammad (pbuh) the Prophet of Islam, to say: ‘Whoever plants a tree and diligently looks after it until it matures and bears fruit is rewarded’.

Islam sees the benefit and well-being of all humanity as being a human responsibility in looking after the world which God has created for us to live in and believes that every effort must be made to be ‘green’ and to slow down and halt destructive trends.

There are Muslim organisations such as the Islamic Foundation for Ecology & Environmental Sciences which work closely with governments and other faith groups.

http://www.altafsir.com/

http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Q_Studies/

https://visitmymosque.org/schools-resources/

‘Ābidīn, Z.a., n.d.The Psalms Of Islam: Al-Sahifa & Al-Sajjadiya. s.l.: s.n.

Abbas T., (ed.), 2005. Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure. London: Zed.

Abdel Haleem, M. A., 1999. Understanding the Quran : themes and style. London: Tauris.

Arkoun, M., 1994. Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers. Oxford: Westview Press.

Askari, H., 1991. Spiritual Quest: An Inter-Religious Dimension. Leeds: Seven Mirrors.

Ayoub, M., 2004. Islam: Faith and History. Oxford: Oneworld.

Brown, D., 2004. A New Introduction to Islam. Oxford: Blackwell.

Ernst, C.W., 1999. Teachings of Sufism. Boston, Mass: Shambhala.

Esack, F., 1999. On Being a Muslim: Finding a Religious Path in the World Today. Oxford: Oneworld.

Esposito, J. & Voll, J., 2001. Makers of Contemporary Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ghazali, M. a., 1998. A journey through the Qur’an : themes and messages of the holy Qur’an. London: Dar Al Taqwa.

Goddard, H., 1995. Christians and Muslims: From Double Standards to Mutual Understanding. London: Curzon.

Halm, H., et al., 2004. Shi’ism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Hewer, C.T.R., 2006. Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps. London: SCM Press.

Lings, M., 1991. Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources. London: Islamic Texts Society.

Mayled, J., 2007. ‘Islam’. In Tyler, S. & Reid, G., AS Religious Studies. London: Pearson

Mayled, J., 2007. ‘Islam’. In Tyler, S. & Reid, G., A2 Religious Studies. London: Pearson

Modood, T., 2005. Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Murata, S. & Chittick, W.C., 1994. The vision of Islam. New York, NY: Paragon House.

Nasr, S. H. et al., 1988. Shi’ism: doctrines, thought, and spirituality. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.

Nasr, S.H., 1988. Ideals and Realities of Islam. London: Unwin.

The authority for leadership arises from the Qur’an (Surah. 4:58-59), hadith and historical precedence. All Muslims will adhere to the belief in Allah and the finality of the Messengership of Muhammad (pbuh) and practice the five pillars of Islam.

However, the point of departure relates to the question of authority. For Sunni Muslims, the sources of authority are the Qur’an, hadith, ijma and qiyas. Over the first four centuries of Islam a sophisticated and complex methodology was developed for an authentic understanding of these sources. This led to the emergence of four major schools of law or madhahibs – Hanafi, Shafi’i, Hanbali and Maliki. For the Shi’a, the major school of law is the Ithna Ashari (Twelvers) or also known as the Jafari, named after Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. The legitimate interpreters of the Qur’an are the Imams, who are from the ahl al-Bayt, the family of the Prophet. The major groups from these are Jafaris, Ismailis and Zaydis.

Islam is Din, a whole way of life and provides Muslims with guidance permeating every aspect of human existence. The life and example of the Prophet provides the ideal for all Muslims to aim for and emulate. The whole purpose and aim is to develop a perpetual consciousness of Allah within the life of the individual, to remind one of the ephemeral nature of her existence and to cultivate a human personality that seeks the peace, compassion and harmony of all.

Following the passing away of the Prophet, the early Muslim community was confronted with the question of leadership of the Community. A large gathering of the companions selected Abu Bakr (r. 632-634 CE), a senior companion (sahaba) of the Prophet, following his death he was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634-644 CE), Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644-656 CE) and Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656-661 CE). These four are revered in Sunni Islam as the Calipha Rashidun (the Rightly Guided Caliphs). The assassination of Uthman led to a major rupture within the Islamic community, Mu’awiya’s (r.661-680) refusal to accept Ali’s leadership led to civil war and as a consequence resulted in the emergence of a group called Shi’ite Ali (the party of Ali). For the Shi’a leadership was to be based upon the lineage to the Prophet’s family (ahl al-Bayt) and they too would appeal to the Qur’an and hadith for scriptural legitimacy. It was later that a fuller Shi’a theology would develop the theory of the succession of twelve Imams (Ithna Ashari, Twelvers) and place Ali as the first Imam and the rightful successor to the Prophet and project back to the time of the Prophet’s passing away as the moment at which Ali was denied his rightful place as leader of the community.

Over the first three to four centuries of Islam, Muslim scholar-Jurists invented a sophisticated and complex discipline of Usul al-Fiqh, (Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence). This provided a sophisticated methodology for the deduction of the law from the four primary sources in Sunni Islam – Qur’an, Hadith, Ijma and Qiyas. In Sunni Islam therefore the practice is expressed through following one of the four major schools of Islamic Law (Madhahibs) that emerged during the first four centuries of Islam, these are the Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali and Shafi’i. The major Shi’a school of law is the Jafari.

The Madhahibs are a source of orthopraxis for the Muslims and therefore many of the classical books from the different schools of law are now available in English. This has in practice resulted in many English speaking Muslims seeking a return to the classical law manuals rather than the inherited forms of practice through Salafi or Wahhabi groups. In cases of family law, for example, divorce, Muslim men and women may utilize the services of a number of Shari’ah Councils that have emerged over the last four decades, these have enabled Muslim women a release from marriage which in some cases their husbands had refused to do. These Councils also provide significant mediation and conflict resolution assistance based within the framework of Shari’ah.

The major Sunni institution on the world stage that provides fatwas on contemporary issues, such as IVF, abortion, organ transplants, terrorism, etc. is the Al-Azhar in Cairo, Egypt. For the Shi’a their guidance emanates from the leading Ayatollahs from the Middle East. One of the contemporary challenges for British Muslims is the absence of a central authority, for example, the Mufti of Great Britain, who could address issues concerning British Muslims.

Due to the nature of Authority in Islam, there is continuous intellectual debate and discussion, and certainly in Sunni Islam it is evaluated through the degree to which an Ijma (consensus) of the community of Scholars may emerge. In relation to politics, of course, the greatest abuse of authority has been perpetrated by extremist violent ideologues who have sought to attack the madhahibs as outdated. By cutting off the primary sources, Qur’an and Hadith from their traditional complex and sophisticated methodology of interpretation invented by scholar-jurists, the extremists have sought to appeal to the literalist reading of these sources to justify their violent political ideology. The Islamist groups in their various guises throughout the Islamic world have sought to use their ‘Islamist’ credentials to gain power and many are leading campaigns for social justice and delivery of essential services often in deprived areas.

Being Muslim impacts on every aspect of a person’s life. ‘Islam’ means submission to the will of Allah and it is by living according to this will that Muslims can demonstrate their belief. In leading a life of submission to the will of Allah, Muslims are always conscious of their obligations to Allah, to their families and to others.

At the centre of Islamic life and belief are the Five Pillars of Faith:

– Shahadah – this is the declaration of faith and states: There is no god except Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

– Salah – five compulsory daily prayers as a mean of communicating with and worshipping Allah. The conditions for Salah, the times, the preparations and the words are carried out in accordance with the ways which were taught by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). All prayer is in Arabic.

– Zakah – ‘the purification of wealth by the payment of an annual welfare due’. This should not be confused with charity. Muslims give 2½% of their surplus income as zakah each year. Zakah began in al-Madinah to care for the widows and orphans. Wealth is seen as a gift from Allah and is to be shared. After paying zakah, the remainder of a person’s wealth is kept pure and people are kept free from greed and selfishness. As well as this, Muslims are urged to make additional voluntary payments called Sadaqah.

– Hajj – the annual pilgrimage to Makkah, which every Muslim must carry out at least once in a lifetime if he or she has the health and wealth. A Muslim man who has completed Hajj is called Hajji, and a woman, Hajjah. The pilgrimage is made during Dhul Hijjah, the twelfth month.

– Sawm – this is fasting from just before dawn until sunset during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim calendar. Muslims must abstain from all food and drink (including water) as well as smoking and sexual relations during the hours of fasting.

The fulfilment of these five pillars is the duty of every Muslim as a demonstration of their obedience to Allah’s wishes.

Each of these five actions is ibadah; an act of worship performed with the intention of obeying the wishes of Allah.

The Qur’an and books of hadith are treated with reverence; the Qur’an especially would be placed in a reverential position at home, work or the mosque. Most mosques traditionally have wooden cabinets or shelving for placing of the Qur’ans and also ensuring that they are accessible to the worshippers. There are also special Qur’an stands available in mosques and most Muslim homes on which the Qur’an is placed when being read. Many Mosques will also stock collections of Hadith and these too must be treated with utmost reverence. In the UK there are estimated to be some 1600 mosques, many are not purpose built but often just large houses or similar buildings converted to a Mosque.

Much of Muslim life is centred on worship. The daily struggle of Greater Jihad (see below) could be said to inform all aspects of Muslim life, however, it is also stressed that there are set times for prayer which turn the thoughts of a Muslim from the secular world to the sacred one and that after prayer there is a return to daily life and work. This is also seen in the observance of Friday prayers, Salat-ul-Jumu’ah, all work stops for the prayers but after the service is over, daily life returns.

For the Muslim the whole of the earth is a Mosque and therefore Muslims are permitted to pray at any clean place. There is usually a Minbar for the Imam to stand and deliver his sermon. Most Mosques will also have a Mihrab, which signifies the direction of Makkah to which Muslims pray. Muslims will often make effort to pray in Jumu’ah (congregation). It is traditional for majority of Mosques also to have large quantities of tasbihs available, usually hanging off the wall so that when Muslims are reciting certain litanies these help to count and also focus the mind. Muslim men and women would be expected to cover their whole bodies including their heads when praying. Imams would often wear a turban and hold the staff as a symbol of Prophetic authority and practice.

The five daily prayers (Salah) mean that Muslims pray as a community, it is a great leveller as all stand side by side in rows, focused towards Makkah and as one body. The Prophet defined perfection of faith (Ihsan) as to ‘worship God as if you see Him, if you see Him not, know that He sees you’, so it is a means of focusing the whole of one’s being towards and in the presence of God.

Birth: When a Muslim child is born the adhan (call to prayer) is whispered in its right ear and the ‘iqamah (command to rise and worship) in the left. This means that the first words the baby hears are: ‘Allahu Akbar’. The words are usually said by the oldest male present but can be said by a Muslim woman.

In India, Pakistan and Bangladesh the tahnik ceremony is held. Sugar, honey or a squashed date is rubbed on the baby’s gums by an elderly relative. This expresses the hope that the baby will be sweet-natured, kind, obedient and considerate.

Aqiqa: Seven days after birth is the Aqiqa ceremony where the father announces the name of the child to friends and relatives. The parents or the grandparents choose the name. The baby is being welcomed into the ummah. Prayers are recited asking for Allah’s blessing and for the child’s future health, prosperity and spiritual growth. The baby’s head is wiped with olive oil then washed or shaved. The equivalent weight of the shaven hair, in gold or silver, is then given to the poor.

Some Muslims offer a sacrifice after the Aqiqa ceremony. A sheep or goat is offered for a girl and two animals for a boy.

The khitan, or circumcision, may be performed at the aqiqa ceremony or at twenty-one days or even later. It can be done any time up to the tenth birthday.

Bismillah: The Bismillah ceremony is the beginning of the religious education of the child. It takes place when the child is four years old: sometimes when the child is exactly four years, four months and four days. The child must be able to recite ‘Bismillah-ir-Rahman-ir-Rahim’ (In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful).

By the age of seven the child will be able to take part in the five daily prayers and, by the age of ten, to fast, though usually not for the whole month of Ramadan. By the time a child is twelve Muslims are usually considered old enough to be responsible for their own religious activities.

Marriage: Marriages in the Muslim community are often arranged but they can only take place with the consent of both parties. All Muslims are expected to marry. Men may have up to four wives but each must be treated equally:

If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, Marry women of your choice, Two or three or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice. (Surah 4:3)

A Muslim man may marry a Jew or a Christian but a Muslim woman may only marry a Muslim man. Divorce is regarded as a last resort.

A Muslim marriage usually takes place in the home or the mosque and the couple give their consent before at least two witnesses. There are readings from the Qur’an and the imam and the guests pray for the couple.

The Aqd Nikah (contract of marriage) is spoken and written. The bride and groom sign three copies to ensure that they have both agreed to the marriage.

The groom gives mahr (a sum of money, property or other valuable gift) to the bride and this remains her property for life. Often a walimah or nuptial feast follows the ceremony.

Sometimes the bride does not attend the ceremony. She may remain at home while the bridegroom goes to the mosque and she appoints an agent and two witnesses to represent her part of the contract.

Death: The funeral rites for Muslims are not in the Qur’an but in law books. Rituals vary according to the customs of the country. Muslim graves in the UK run from north-east to south-west, so the heads can be at the south-west end facing right towards the direction of Makkah and the Ka’bah.

Muslims are buried and not cremated as they want the bodies to be intact for the resurrection of the dead from their graves at the Day of Judgement.

When Muslims are dying, they say the words attributed to Muhammad (pbuh) (‘Allah, help me through the hardship and agony of death’). They also try to repeat the Shahadah (declaration of faith): ‘There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah’.

Relatives recite verses from the Qur’an to call on the barakah (grace) of Allah and they repeat loudly, ‘la-ilaha-illallah’, ‘there is no god but Allah’ so that Satan will have no opportunity to confuse the dying person with doubts.

The dead body is placed on a stretcher with the head in the direction of the Qiblah. Ghusl a ritual washing is done by relatives of the same sex as the deceased. The corpse is washed three times, perfumed with scents such as camphor, wrapped in a shroud, a single piece of unsewn cloth, and placed in a coffin.

Laws in many countries require coffins but in some Muslim countries the body is placed straight into the ground, protected by planks or with a coffin inverted over it and then covered with earth. Salah is then performed in the house of the dead Muslim or in the mosque.

The funeral takes place as soon as possible, usually the next day, but certainly within three days.

At the graveside in the cemetery, funeral prayers Salat-ul-Janaza (which is salah with no prostrations), and al-Fatihah (Surah 1) are said.

When the corpse is lowered into the ground, the body is committed to the earth with the words, ‘In the name of Allah, (we bury) according to the Way of the Prophet of Allah’ and the ‘From the (earth) did We create you, and into it shall We return you, and from it shall We bring you out once again.'(Surah 20:55).

Seven days after the burial, relatives try to visit the grave as a mark of respect.

Generally, mourning does not last more than three days.

Shi’a Muslims have different traditions including rawdahs (memorial gatherings) on the fortieth day of mourning.

It is traditional for the grave to be raised a little above the level of the ground, simply to stop people from walking on it or sitting on it.

Islam does not require separation from the non-Muslim world but some of the laws of Islam require separation of a degree. Prayer times must be observed and food must be halal. The laws of modesty, particularly in relation to women have caused some difficulties for Muslims living in the western world. Whilst the Qur’an does indicate what is suitably modest dress for both men and women, much practice is based on the local cultures of the countries in which Islam developed. This has caused some difficulties, in particular for women, who wish to observe a strict code of dress in the outside world with corresponding negative reactions in the media.

The teachings of shirk (association), that is, regarding anything as being equal or partner to Allah, has caused problems when some western media have sought to represent the Prophet in drawings or cartoon form. Many of these representations have been derogatory and offensive to Muslims. Muslims do not condemn freedom of speech but nevertheless this cannot extend to this sort of treatment of the Prophet of Allah.

Many Muslims live in very tight-knit families and communities and feel that Islam has not been well reported in much of the media, especially in the light of the destruction of the twin towers in New York in 2001 and the London bombings in 2005. Such extremist atrocities are condemned by Muslims in the UK as having nothing to do with the true teachings of Islam.

It is important to note that these aspects separation from the non-Muslims world are not associated in any way with any idea of Muslims being better than others, such an idea is anathema and contrary to the teachings of the Qur’an.

A further very important aspect of Islamic spirituality is Jihad.

Greater Jihad is defined as ‘personal individual struggle against evil in the way of Allah’. This is a daily feature in the life of a Muslim as they try to ensure that every aspect of their life is lived in accordance with Allah’s will.

The concept often referred to as Jihad, particularly in some parts of the media, is in fact Lesser Jihad. This is sometimes translated as a Holy War – fighting to protect Islam. The conditions of Lesser Jihad, like those of a Just War, are very strict and Muslims in the UK say that no Lesser Jihad has been legitimately called for many centuries.